Effect of Reinforcement Essay Example for Free

Effect of Reinforcement Essay Psychology as we know it didn’t suddenly appear on the intellectual scene. It is impossible to say just when it began, or who was responsible for it. Instead, we can only point to a number of current that takes us from philosophy and the natural sciences into something recognizably psychological. To give you the simple concept of this field, psychology is the study of human and animal behavior. As time ages, many psychological theories have evolved. Burhus Frederic Skinner, as one of the contributors has emphasized a theory on learning regarding to individual’s behavior. Skinner believed that the best way to understand behavior is to look at the causes of an action and its consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning. Skinners theory of operant conditioning was based on the work of Thorndike (1905). Edward Thorndike studied learning in animals using a puzzle box to propose the theory known as the Law of Effect Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike’s law of effect. Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect Reinforcement. Behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e. strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e. weakened). Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals which he placed in a â€Å"Skinner Box† which was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box. B.F. Skinner (1938) coined the term operant conditioning; it means roughly changing of behavior by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response. A. Background of the study Reinforcement, a term used to refer to anything that increases the likelihood that a response will occur. Reinforcement, noted, defined by the effect that it has on behavior it increases or strengthens the behavior. It might involve responses right after the reinforced present a kind of motivation. In this study, we could see the behavior, and the responses made by the rat in the presentation of reinforcement. The errors of the rat in the progress of the experiment shall be observed and noted and shown to answer the queries of the researchers at the same time address curiosity. B. Theoretical Basis: Physiological psychology research has identified separate but interactive neural pathways mediating reward and aversion (i.e., functioning as positive and negative reinforcement systems, respectively). Direct activation of brain reward mechanisms through electrical and chemical stimulation provides a tool for elucidating these neural systems. During the past four decades, considerable knowledge has been gained regarding the anatomical and neurochemical basis of these pathways. This brief presentation addresses only brain mechanisms involved in positive reinforcement because they are closely identified with pleasure in humans and because they underlie the primary process governing much of normal behavior. Deprivation and Positive Reinforces: Experts who say educators can use positive reinforces (positive consequences) to control students behavior usually dont tell the educators they must first deprive students of whatever they plan to use as reinforce. As far back as 1938, Skinner described how deprivation is necessary when a person wants to use reinforces to control another organism. That was when he wrote, in the preface to his book, The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis (N.Y.: Appleton-Century-Crofts): The simplest contingencies involve at least three terms stimulus, response, and reinforcement and at least one other variable (the deprivation associated with the reinforcement) is implied. I think it is interesting that, even relatively early in his work, Skinner was waffling on his acknowledgment of the central role deprivation plays in operant conditioning. Notice how he says there are at least three terms, and at least one other variable (the deprivation associated with the reinforcement) is implied. Make no mistake about it, deprivation is not merely implied; it is the essential action that allows behaviorists to create the illusion that reinforcement controls behavior, whether the behavior occurs in the experimental laboratory, the classroom, or the slaughterhouse. Watsons S-R behavioristic psychology described behavior as reflexive responses to stimuli. Skinners radical behaviorism described behavior as responses in the presence of stimuli that were associated with reinforcers, where the reinforcers worked because the organism was deprived. The formula in Skinners psychology is stimulus-response-reinforcement (+deprivation): S-R-R (+D). (Sometimes the formula is written, Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence, or A-B-C. I would add +Deprivation, making the formula A-B-C (+D).) Without deprivation, or denial of access to something an organism wants or needs, there is no reinforcement. If a rat eats pellets of food until it stops of its own accord, then the behaviorist cannot use food to reinforce the rat’s actions. If a child has all of the attention he or she needs or wants, then a teacher cannot use attention to reinforce the childs behavior. No deprivation, no control of behavior. No control of behavior, no discipline program The following passage, from one of the Bibles of laboratory research methods for radical behaviorists, describes how completely they relied on deprivation to create the illusion that reinforcers control behavior. In 1957, C. B. Ferster and B. F. Skinner wrote that: Birds are sometimes matched on deprivation level as measured by the rate of responding under a variable-interval schedule. Each bird is run for a session of fixed length each day C. Related Literature What is Reinforcement? Reinforcement theory is the process of shaping behavior by controlling the consequences of the behavior. In reinforcement theory a combination of rewards and/or punishments is used to reinforce desired behavior or extinguish unwanted behavior. Any behavior that elicits a consequence is called operant behavior, because the individual operates on his or her environment. Reinforcement theory concentrates on the relationship between the operant behavior and the associated consequences, and is sometimes referred to as operant conditioning. REINFORCEMENT, PUNISHMENT, AND EXTINCTION The most important principle of reinforcement theory is, of course, reinforcement. Generally speaking, there are two types of reinforcement: positive and negative. Positive reinforcement results when the occurrence of a valued behavioral consequence has the effect of strengthening the probability of the behavior being repeated. The specific behavioral consequence is called a reinforced. An example of positive reinforcement might be a salesperson that exerts extra effort to meet a sales quota (behavior) and is then rewarded with a bonus (positive reinforce). The administration of the positive reinforce should make it more likely that the salesperson will continue to exert the necessary effort in the future. Negative reinforcement results when an undesirable behavioral consequence is withheld, with the effect of strengthening the probability of the behavior being repeated. Negative reinforcement is often confused with punishment, but they are not the same. Punishment attempts to decrease the probability of specific behaviors; negative reinforcement attempts to increase desired behavior. Thus, both positive and negative reinforcement have the effect of increasing the probability that a particular behavior will be learned and repeated. An example of negative reinforcement might be a salesperson that exerts effort to increase sales in his or her sales territory (behavior), which is followed by a decision not to reassign the salesperson to an undesirable sales route (negative reinforce). The administration of the negative reinforce should make it more likely that the salesperson will continue to exert the necessary effort in the future. As mentioned above, punishment attempts to decrease the probability of specific behaviors being exhibited. Punishment is the administration of an undesirable behavioral consequence in order to reduce the occurrence of the unwanted behavior. Punishment is one of the more commonly used reinforcement-theory strategies, but many learning experts suggest that it should be used only if positive and negative reinforcement cannot be used or have previously failed, because of the potentially negative side effects of punishment. An example of punishment might be demoting an employee who does not meet performance goals or suspending an employee without pay for violating work rules. Extinction is similar to punishment in that its purpose is to reduce unwanted behavior. The process of extinction begins when a valued behavioral consequence is withheld in order to decrease the probability that a learned behavior will continue. Over time, this is likely to result in the ceasing of that behavior. Extinction may alternately serve to reduce a wanted behavior, such as when a positive reinforce is no longer offered when a desirable behavior occurs. For example, if an employee is continually praised for the promptness in which he completes his work for several months, but receives no praise in subsequent months for such behavior, his desirable behaviors may diminish. Thus, to avoid unwanted extinction, managers may have to continue to offer positive behavioral consequences. What is motivation? Definition of Motivation Motivation refers to â€Å"the reasons underlying behavior† (Guay et al., 2010, p. 712). Paraphrasing Gredler, Broussard and Garrison (2004) broadly define motivation as â€Å"the attribute that moves us to do or not to do something† (p. 106). Intrinsic motivation is motivation that is animated by personal enjoyment, interest, or pleasure. As Deci et al. (1999) observe, â€Å"Intrinsic motivation energizes and sustains activities through the spontaneous satisfactions inherent in effective volitional action. It is manifest in behaviors such as play, exploration, and challenge seeking that people often do for external rewards† (p. 658). Researchers often contrast intrinsic motivation with extrinsic motivation, which is motivation governed by reinforcement contingencies. Traditionally, educators consider intrinsic motivation to be more desirable and to result in better learning outcomes than extrinsic motivation (Deci et al., 1999). Although the use of differential reinforcement has been recommended in previous investigations and in early intervention curriculum manuals, few studies have evaluated the best method for providing differential reinforcement to maximize independent responding. This paper reviews previous research on the effectiveness of differential reinforcement as treatment and describes important areas of future research. Keywords: acquisition, differential reinforcement, early intervention, reinforcement quality, reinforcement schedules Differential reinforcement is an operant procedure used to increase the occurrence of desirable behavior while simultaneously decreasing undesirable behavior. The use of differential reinforcement is recommended in early intervention (EI) programs because children in EI often do not acquire skills in the absence of motivational procedures (Karsten Carr, 2009; Leaf McEachin, 1999; Lovaas, 2003). In addition, prompting procedures may be necessary initially, because children who require EI may not have extensive skill repertoires that could be exposed to differential reinforcement. Thus, one challenge in EI programming is to identify differential reinforcement procedures that minimize prompt dependence and promote independent responding as the ultimate goal. However, only a few studies have examined the effects of differential reinforcement on independent and prompted responding in EI programs. Therefore, the purposes of this review are (a) to provide a summary of previous research related to differential reinforcement during acquisition-based procedures in EI and (b) to suggest areas of future research. Schedules of reinforcement Studies have examined variations in differential reinforcement schedules for prompted and independent responding to identify schedules that increase the efficiency of learning (i.e., quickly increase independent responding). Olenick and Pear (1980) implemented differential reinforcement during tact training using 5-s constant time delay (hereafter referred to as â€Å"prompt delay†) with 3 children with severe intellectual disabilities. The evaluation included four conditions. In two of the conditions, reinforcement was provided on a fixed-ratio (FR) 6 or 8 schedule. Reinforcement was provided on an FR 1 schedule for correct independent responses and on an FR 6 or FR 8 schedule for prompted responses in the third condition. In the fourth condition, reinforcement was provided on an FR 1 schedule for prompted responses and on an FR 6 or 8 schedules for correct independent responses. Results indicated that all participants had the highest accuracy and number of independent responses on the FR 1 schedule for independent responses. These findings suggest that schedules of reinforcement that favor independent responding may produce more rapid skill acquisition. However, the authors implemented a fairly thin schedule of reinforcement in the first two conditions (i.e., FR 6 or 8) and did not conduct any sessions at a 0-s prompt delay, both of which are inconsistent with typical procedures used in EI (Walker, 2008). Thus, it is not clear that the results of this study are representative of acquisition in clinical settings, in which rich schedules of reinforcement and a 0-s prompt delay are used most typically in initial stages of learning. What is Latent learning? Latent learning is a theory in psychology that describes learning without a reward. An organism learns a new concept simply from observation and without any obvious reinforcement. The organism may not be consciously aware of its new skill until it suddenly expresses that skill when it becomes useful at a later date. For instance, a person can casually observe other people using chopsticks to eat and discover much later that he or she can use them correctly without ever being taught. A classic experiment in psychology illustrates how latent learning works. Edward C. Tolman and C.H. Honzik famously placed three groups of rats inside a maze, where the rats were allowed to wander around. One rat group always received a food reward when reaching the end of the maze, while the second group found no food at the end. The third group found no food at the end of the maze for ten days but discovered food on the 11th day. The first group of rats learned to reach the end of the maze quickly to reach the food. The second group continued to wonder around the maze. The third group acted similarly to the second group until food was placed at the end of the maze on the last day. One day after food was placed; the third group had already learned to reach the end of the maze as quickly as the first group.

My personal experience Essay Example for Free

My personal experience Essay This story is from my personal experience where I was involved directly with the central character in this story. This story is about a little girl who had lot of aspirations in life and wanted to make a mark in this world. Though the name doesn’t matter but for the matter of convenience, let us call her Mary. Mary’s only fault, if it was, was getting born to parents who could only afford her education by skipping one meal in a day. Mary was above average and hence scored well in her kindergarten levels. The problem started when she was promoted to 1st standard where the level of difficulty increased for her. Her parents who could not read or write were of little help. In the daily grind of earning, when they could hardly afford the meals and her education, getting a tutor for her was a distant dream. This made the little bud sink as she always wanted to be the best and was ready to work hard as well but the conditions at home and school prevented her from unlocking her potential. On one side while her parents had their own rut to handle, her school teacher was not any considerate. She would hardly teach in the class and yet expect her students to perform the best. Well, her prestige was at stake. Any weak student in the class was a pain for her and she wanted to devise ways and means to expel the student who was not able to score. The first trimester results were declared and as expected Mary flunked in most of the subjects. She was not the worst but she was not above average any more. Mary’s teacher was infuriated with the results of the class, which was not as she wanted. She felt a necessity to teach last 10 rankers a lesson. What else could be better method than to physically torture the tiny tender kids, so that they never forget the lesson the learned teacher was trying to hammer on them. In no time, last 10 rankers were asked to stand outside in the sun which was blazing at the peak summer noon. No prizes for guessing that our Mary was also asked to stand in the scorching heat. The summer sun was too harsh for the slender frame of Mary who could not sustain and passed out on the ground. She was immediately rushed in the shade and nursed. This incidence further aggravated teacher’s indignation. It was difficult for her to believe that kids of Mary’s age can not sustain such punishments. She considered Mary to be faking the whole situation. Teacher remembered the incidence and sought to vindicate it at the right opportunity. It did not take much time for the right opportunity to come in. The Semester exams were going on. Mary was trying her best to prepare for the difficult subjects. Her parents had asked me to take few classes for her as a favor. I agreed and started coaching Mary on the subjects. She was having good grasping power and unique ability to apply the knowledge as soon as acquired. Hence, my effort was quite less in teaching her and the output was beyond my expectation. I started liking to teach her. Mary was working very hard to make up the grades. She was doing well in her exams, she used to tell me. On the day of her last exam, Mary was quietly writing her paper. The paper was easy for her as she was well prepared. The teacher, as vindictive she was, was watching for a slight error from Mary so that she could throw her out of the exam hall. To Mary’s misfortune, the moment arrived. A quick gust of wind flew Mary’s question paper to her fellow students’ desk. As Mary went on to pick her question paper, she was confronted slapped hard by her teacher who left no stone un-turned in proving that she was cheating. Mary cried, cried and cried but it all went on deaf ears. Fortunately, for Mary, the principal of the school was passing by. She stopped and asked the reason for the commotion. Thankfully, the principal believed Mary and allowed her to complete her exams. This was the last straw for the class teacher to consider Mary her sworn enemy. To rub salt on her wounds, Mary’s result was just excellent in the semester exams. She had topped, though over all she was 3rd ranker but still there were six months to go and Mary hoped that she would be able to regain her original position. And then the fateful day arrived. It was one week, since the school opened and Mary was quite excited to learn the subjects further. She was quick to answer the questions asked in the class and was doing very well. Finally, on that day, the teacher got into an ego clash and asked Mary to explain something which was way beyond Mary’s scope of learning. The teacher, infuriated, threw the duster with full force towards Mary which unfortunately hit Mary directly at her temple. Immediate brain hemorrhage followed resulting in on-the-spot loss of a life which was definitely not meant to be going this way. The teacher was tried in the court but she was released due to lack of evidence and on the ground of accidental but not intended hit. Life is going on usual for me or anyone else in the world, but definitely its’ no more a fair world for me!

Reflections On The Professional Use Of Self Social Work Essay

Reflections On The Professional Use Of Self Social Work Essay At the heart of social work lies the fundamental belief in human rights, citizenship and social justice (Fook, 2002). Indeed, social workers are ordinarily duty-bound to advocate the principles of empowerment through anti-oppressive practice whilst placing the wishes and needs of clients at the centre of delivery (General Social Care Council (GSCC), 2004; Dalrymple and Burke, 2006). Yet practice is complex not least because the success of any intervention is entwined with the phenomenological attributes of both clients and practitioners (Prynn, 2008). Thus, social work practitioners face significant challenges such as identifying what they contribute to a relationship, how this impacts on decisions and what individual and structural power imbalances influence practice (Fook, 2002). Critical practice is a conceptual tool which affords practitioners the opportunity to engage in transformational practice whilst recognising the value base and social justice agenda of social work (Fook, 2002). This paper will briefly provide a case study of an experience I encountered as a practitioner. This will then be explored through what Brechin (2000) identifies as the three interrelated domains of critical practice: critical analysis, critical reflexivity and critical action. In doing so it will demonstrate how I have engaged with my self to identify what I took into practice and the implications this can have in being a transformational practitioner. On commencing my role as a project worker within a residential home for young people with behavioural difficulties I was introduced to John (pseudonym). John was fourteen and had a history of anti-social behaviour and a criminal history for burglary and assault although all cases were at least two years prior. John was in care because of a request from his parents who no longer felt they could control his behaviour because his reaction to discipline was often non-compliance and violence. His file illustrated him as mischievous, yet comical, with recent signs of improved behaviour. He enjoyed partaking in various hobbies; however, these were often short-lived with him becoming disinterested very quickly. I worked with John for several months and at a case-review meeting Johns parents informed the panel that he wished to take up boxing. His parents supported the idea, as did the Social Worker because it was thought it may inspire some discipline. I objected because of his criminal conviction of assault. However, the Social Worker dismissed this by indicating that Johns wishes were important and that our role was to empower him. Despite my objections it was agreed that John could attend. John soon attended a boxing club organised and operated by two retired policemen. Approximately one year later John was convicted of aggravated burglary with the victim being an elderly woman. The first domain of critical practice, critical analysis, is concerned with how practitioners evaluate evidence, policies, and knowledge to influence decisions (Brechin, 2000; Glaister, 2008). Furthermore, the practitioner becomes conscious of multiple perspectives and the contextual nature of them (Brechin, 2000; Fook, 2002). Chalmers (2003:22) claims that practitioners who intervene in peoples lives have a responsibility to be informed by rigorous, transparent, up-to-date evaluations. Yet Sheldon and MacDonald (2009) note the reliance on robust evidence being available and the practitioners having the time, resources and skill-base to adequately evaluate evidence. Indeed, Fook (2002) argues that it is often in the interests of agencies to prevent such approaches as it may lead to increased responsibilities and higher costs. Placing this experience in the context of critical analysis it is unsure at this point what informed the Social Workers knowledge; however, it was clear that he wished to respect Johns voice. The Social Worker believed John had personal agency and a fundamental right to choose his own life direction. The GSCC (2004) concurs with the Social Worker in-so-far as practitioners should promote independence and respect the clients right to take risks. The Social Worker, as an agent of the state, was further supported by policies such as article 12 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1990:4) which stipulates that any child capable of forming his or her own views has the right to express those views[and this be] given due weight. Indeed, his employer has signed up to this convention (Somerset County Council, 2009). However, practitioners also have an obligation to ensure that these risks are managed and necessary steps are taken to minimise the risk of harm to service users or others (GSCC, 2010). I held an alternative view to protect John, and others, from harm. It is clear that both the Social Worker and I had valid points, thus, being guided by knowledge, policies and theories on their own may result in conflicts about what actions to follow (Banks, 2006). The second domain of critical practice, critical reflexivity, originates from reflective practice and the concept that practitioners learn through experience (Schà ¶n, 1983). However, because reflective practice has limited criticalness (Fook and Askeland, 2006) it often fails to acknowledge deeper processes which impact practice (Fook, 2002). Furthermore, reflective practice can result in negative outcomes such as self-doubt or an acceptance of status quos (Eby, 2000). Critical reflexivity refers to a practitioner who engages in self-criticism whilst being reflective. The practitioner becomes reflexive in questioning pre-established values, assumptions and prejudices (Taylor and White, 2001) and gains an understanding on how this influences negotiated understandings and interventions whilst working across difference (Glaister, 2008; Fook, 2002). Because critical reflexivity permits the practitioner to acknowledge the complex nature of the clients circumstances and their perspective s there is an organic acknowledgement of cultural and social disparities (Fook, 2002). Indeed, Allport (1978:437) concurs and states how practitioners who engage in inwardness are generally less prejudice, are more tolerant in understanding others, and exhibit a desire for personal autonomy rather than for external, institutional anchorage. Critical reflexivity affords me the opportunity to contemplate on how my preformed values and assumptions influenced my perspective. Thus, I needed to consider the opposition I held to Johns participation. As a pre-adolescent child I was bullied in school with a particular individual being prevalent in my memory. This individual attended martial arts which he duly practised on me. Ultimately, this had a significant impact on my belief that violence is wrong. Indeed, in relation to John my assumption was that everyone who attended a power sport had the potential to bully. This was hyperbolised by Johns past and thus my opposition to his partaking. Adams (2009) supports my exploration by indicating how our experiences can have an implicit impact on our decisions and in this instance I can identify how my negotiated understanding had become manipulated by my self. The Social Worker adopted a Kantianistic approach by wanting to empower John to make his own life choices. Indeed, the Social Worker wanted to advocate Johns rights rather than impose carers perspectives which is understandable considering the current agenda toward person-centred planning (GSCC, 20100; Kellett, 2009). However, I felt that as professionals there was a justification in adopting utilitarianistic values because the risk of re-engaging in criminal activities was too high. Yet evidently apparent is neither the Social Worker or I respected each others perspective. However, notably the issues of the Social Workers claims that he wanted to empower John also become apparent. The very notion that the Social Worker wanted to empower John indicates that the Social Worker was actually the one with the power. Yet, the Social Worker has duties and responsibilities beyond the value of empowerment because of his legislated duty to protect John, and others, from harm (Banks, 2006). The final domain, critical action, is concerned with practitioners having a robust skill-base whilst being conscious of its contextual nature. A critical practitioner works across difference to promote empowerment whilst confronting structural oppressions (Brechin, 2000; Eby, 2000). A primary principle of critical practice is the notion that practitioners should be research-minded in understanding the contextual basis of empirical evidence (Shemmings and Shemmings, 2003). Utilisation of the best available evidence is essential to contemporary practice (Sheldon and MacDonald, 2009) and yet despite being a self-evidently a good idea (Trinder, 2000:3), evidence-based practice has faced fierce opposition because there is a risk that practitioners may abandon reflexivity and personal agency for technical rationality (Taylor and White, 2006; Webb, 2001). However, this view has been adequately challenged by commentators who state that evidence-based practice, which actually means evidence-i nformed practice (MacDonald, 2003; Chalmers, 2003) has, when scrutinised, the potential to minimise the risk of harm to service users (Chalmers, 2003). Indeed, evidence-informed practice is the critically appraised synthesis of empirical and experiential evidence (Fook, 2002; Sheldon and MacDonald, 2009). In linking this to my experience with John, it becomes clear that I could not knowingly offer any definitive empirical evidence to support my perspective. However, neither could the Social Worker. In this sense both the Social Worker and I failed to be research-minded. Thus, in opposition to anti-evidence-based advocates, this experience indicates how practitioners can make mistakes when acting on instinct alone. Indeed, a brief search for empirical evidence found a longitudinal study by Endersen and Olweus (2005) which identified how participation in power sports for adolescents with a previous history of anti-social behaviours is likely to result in re-engagement. As John had a previous history of theft, this evidence may well have helped me, the Social Worker, and even John, come to a different decision. Critical action also involves the practitioner developing a consciousness of the often hidden imbalances of power between themselves, agencies and the client (Payne, 2005). Critical practice occurs within the context of theory and consideration of critical theories permits me to understand my construction of power and how this influenced my action, or inaction. For example, Foucault was concerned with language and how discourse can assist professionals to create natural and unchallengeable situations because they are deemed to have knowledge and thus power (Finlay, 2000:85). Indeed, the Social Worker established, chaired and controlled the case-review meeting. Fook (2002) concurs and argues that professionals utilise societal structures in order to suppress service users. Taking my earlier point regarding the construction of the case-meeting further it is clear that it was designed by adults with no real consideration about what John wanted. Indeed it is hard to understand why John, or an advocate, was not at the meeting. Yet, even if John was permitted to attend, it is highly likely he would have faced oppression by being forced to engage with the hegemonic language of adults which he would not have understood, thus he would ultimately been oppressed and possibly disempowered (Kehily, 2009). However, Cocker and Allain (2008) contend that service users have the right to take a pro-active role in decision making processes and suggest that the role of the practitioner is to ensure that service users are fully informed through the provision of concise information. This clearly did not transpire and thus true empowerment was never apparent. In concluding it is evident a professionals self can impact on the everyday lives of service users and practitioners. As practitioners we all have multiple identities which we take into practice. Not only do these derive from our previous experiences, but also our responsibilities as professionals, agents of the states, as employees and of course as statutory creation created to fulfil a role. Indeed, critical practice assists practitioners highlight how their self has been impacted upon from each of these identities and permits the us to make decisions, along with the service user, that are more likely to produce a more productive, and effective, outcome for all. In engaging in critical practice I have been able to identify significant factors which may have contributed to a better outcome. Whether Johns participation in boxing contributed to his re-engagement in criminal activities cannot be realistically measured. However, what is certain is John was disempowered in-so-far as he should have been fully informed. It is clear that none of the three domains of critical practice isolated can work independently, however, the careful and intentional synthesis of values, experiences, evidence and knowledge along with an awareness of structural disadvantage caused by agencies can all have a positive impact on the self and ultimately a practitioners power to challenge practice. I misplaced my power as a morally active practitioner and permitted the Social Worker to make a judgement based on instinct. I could have researched the potential issues of boxing and provided John with more in-depth information in a format he would understand. However, as practitioners we have an obligation to learn from our experiences because a critical practitioner who is engaged with their self is more likely to succeed in becoming a transformational practitioner.

Biography of Alice Walker Essay -- color purple, racism, sexism

Alice Walker was â€Å"born in Eatonton, Georgia, on February 9, 1944, she was the youngest of the eight children†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (Source 8) Alice and her Father, Willie Grant, â€Å"†¦ at first [had a] strong and valuable [relationship]†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (Source 10), then when she joined the Civil Rights and feminist movements their relationship became tense. â€Å"Walker attended segregated schools†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (Source 7) when she was younger and â€Å"†¦she recalled that she had terrific teachers who encouraged her to believe that the world she was reaching for actually existed.†(Source 7). One of Walker’s most memorable events in her childhood was when â€Å"†¦a BB gun accident which left her at age eight blind in one eye.† After high School Walker went to Speleman college on a full scholarship in 1961 and later transferred to Sarah Lawerence College near new York. â€Å"In 1965, Walker met and later married Melvyn Roseman Leventhal, a Jewish civil rights lawyer.†(Source 11) They got married on March 17, 1967 in New York City. â€Å"Later that year the couple relocated to Jackson, Mississippi, becoming "the first legally married inter-racial couple in Mississippi."(Source 11) Together Alice and Melvyn had their first child, â€Å"†¦Rebecca, in 1969, whom she described in 2008 as, "a living, breathing, mixed-race embodiment of the new America that they were trying to forge.†(Source 11). Walker completed her first novel a few days before she went into labor with her first child Rebecca. During the time she was writing and taking care of her newborn she was threatened by the Ku Klux Klan and became more isolated especially because she was a black writer. (Source 3, p.34) â€Å"Walker's first novel, The Third Life of Grange Copeland, was published in 1970. In 1976, Walker's second novel, Meridian, was published. The ... ...that pulls the reader in to feel what Celie doesn't express. If you haven't lived it or heard people describe that type of life, you can't imagine it. You can only take Walker's words and feel them instead.† (Source 12) In my opinion, the color purple was an acceptable book because it had some good values of life, and good stories, but for the most part, it was disturbing and graphic. The good value of life that I liked in this book where keeping your loved ones as close as possible, no matter what happens. The bond between Celie and Nettie was unbreakable, and they kept it that way even when they did not see each other for decades. The good stories consisted of Nettie and her life as a missionary in Africa, when Celie was reunited with her long lost children, and when Harpo’s wife beats him up. Warren, Nagueyalti. Alice Walker. Ipswich, MA: Salem, 2013. Print.

Chinese Occupation of Tibet Essay -- China Rights Invasion Papers

Chinese Occupation of Tibet In 1949, China entered Tibet using military force and has been occupying the country since. During China’s occupation of Tibet, countless human rights violations have been committed towards the Tibetan citizens. By killing off and forcing millions of Tibetans out of their country, destroying most of the Tibetan monasteries and forcing Communist beliefs on the Tibetans, China has succeeded in permanently altering the Tibetan culture. Tibet has received some support from the US and other countries in the UN but not enough to free them from China’s occupation. Many individual countries as well as the UN have given recognition to the human rights violations in Tibet but to date no countries have risked ruining their good relations with China to formally help Tibet. In order to prevent further suffering of the Tibetan citizens and destruction of their unique culture, foreign support must be given to Tibet. The US has a lot of influence in this matter and has the a bility to pass pro-Tibet legislation and put pressure on China to end human rights violations or completely withdraw from the country and recognize its independence. To make this bold move, the US would have to risk breaking positive relations with China. Tibet’s culture as we once knew it has been wiped out and if action is not taken to help Tibetan relations with China the human rights violations will continue. The Chinese government has considered Tibet as a part of their nation since 1890 when they attempted to open Tibet to trade with Britain. This trade agreement was met by Tibetan resistance and never became effective. China did no show persistence in its alleged sovereignty over Tibet until 1949 when China was... .... In Exile from the Land of Snows. HarperPerennial: New York, NY, 1997. Norbu, Dawa, China’s Tibet Policy. Curzon Press: Richmond, Surrey, 2001. Goldstein, Melvyn C., The Snow Lion and the Dragon: China, Tibet, and the Dalai Lama. University of California Press: Berkeley, CA, 1997. Xu, Guangqiu. â€Å"The United States and the Tibetan Issue.† Asian Survey 37.11 (1997): 1062-1077. Karmel, Solomon. â€Å"Ethnic Tension and the Struggle for Order: China’s Policies in Tibet.† Pacific Affairs 68.4 (1995-1996): 485-508. Norbu, Dawa. â€Å"China’s Dialogue With the Dalai Lama 1978-90: Prenegotiation State of Dead End?† Pacific Affairs 64.3 (1991): 351-372. Nathan, Andrew J. â€Å"Human Rights in Chinese Foreign Policy.† China Quarterly 0.139 (1994): 622-643. Rubin, Alffred P. â€Å"The Position of Tibet in International Law.† China Quarterly 0.35 (1968): 110-154.

Death and Creation in The Hollow Men :: Hollow Men Essays

Throughout the semester, we have read many poems by many well-known authors.   All of these poems were worthy of the literary merit they received, but I would like to write this paper on a poem that is equally as wonderful.   I will be writing this paper on T.S. Eliot’s â€Å"The Hollow Men.†Ã‚   This is an incredibly poetic work that is just simply brilliant.   I will be discussing how Eliot constantly uses death and creation images to strengthen the theme of the poem.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Throughout this entire poem, there is an ever-present theme of death.   There is not a single stanza where there is not something that is â€Å"dead.†Ã‚   The beauty of his verse makes even darkness and death sound appealing. â€Å"Shape without form, shade without colour, Paralysed force, gesture without motion.†Ã‚   This verse alone gives a beautifully haunting image of darkness and death.   This is a descriptive adjective for the kingdom of death in which the hollow men reside.   â€Å"Death’s kingdom†, â€Å"the dead land†, â€Å"dying stars†, and â€Å"fading stars† are all images of death that Eliot uses to stress the ever-present theme of death in this poem.   The way that he links it all together almost makes the reader want to become one of the â€Å"hollow men.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One of the things about this poem that makes it so interesting, is the fact that despite the ever-present theme of death, Eliot throws in a few images of creation to counteract it.   In stanza four, the lines â€Å"Sightless, unless The eyes reappear As the perpetual star, Multifoliate rose Of death’s twilight kingdom.   The hope only Of empty men† creates the image of re-creation as a possibility of these â€Å"hollow men†.   This is their only hope, and in a way, is like the creation of the world for them.   The reappearing eyes almost serve as their saviour.   â€Å"Between the conception And the creation, Between the emotion And the response Falls the Shadow† is also an image of creation.   It is a subtle implication of life and death falls in to existence after creation.   Eliot’s poetic style here is simply outstanding.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There is also a religious undertone tied in with all of Eliot’s images of death and creation.   It seems that every mention of death gives a religious image as well.   The poem always speaks of â€Å"death’s kingdom†, and is not death’s kingdom part of the kingdom of God?   I definitely get a religious image in my mind, as do, I suspect, most readers, when I see the line â€Å"For Thine is the Kingdom† repeated on more than one occasion.

Colgate-Palmolive International Business Strategy Essay

1. Introduction What a â€Å"Colgate Smile† is a phrase commonly used as a compliment about one’s smile. It has been popularized throughout the whole world, due to Colgate’s good reputation as a successful business. Colgate, today being one of America’s most successful Fortune 500 companies, has a long history of evolution and complex adoption of various business strategies, which led to its current solid powerful position. As representatives of the Colgate-Palmolive Company, we are pleased to tell you more about the success story of our company through this report. In the first part, we will show how CP slowly internationalized and expanded globally by adapting various strategies to become one of the most powerful MNC’s, to then in the second part, give you details from an academic point of view with regards to the Bartlett and Ghoshal’s transnational strategy framework which the firm ended up adopting in order to most efficiently survive in and take over t he very competitive market. 2. Internationalization Strategy of Colgate-Palmolive 2.1 The assesment of the internationalisation of the company In 1806, William Colgate started a starch, soap and candles company in New York City and, after 207 years, Colgate-Palmolive stands as one of the oldest and truly  global consumer product company. Colgate-Palmolive owns 75 wholly owned subsidiaries in 75 different countries, and operates in more than 200 (Colgate.com, 2013). Colgate had a slow start – after founding the company in 1806 they remained in the American market for more than 100 years. During that time, they were expanding their operations and developing their strategies for the local market, and then in 1914, Colgate opened their first international subsidiary in Canada, a neighboring country, with both geographical proximity and cultural similarities. The company’s international growth was slow during the 1800’s but with all the technological developments that took place during the 1900’s and with the need to enlarge their global market share, Colgate went on its internationalization process. To mention briefly; in 1920 Colgate established operations in Europe, Australia, Asia and Latin America, eight years later, Colgate merged with Palmolive-Peet, and became Colgate-Palmolive-Peet, thus joining forces with another company aspiring for global dominance. In 1985, Colgate-Palmolive entered into a joint venture with Hawley & Hazel in Hong Kong, and ten years later, in 1995, after the end of the communist regime, Colgate entered Central Europe and Russia, thus expanding its operations into the fast growing countries of the region (Colgate.com, 2013). Figure 1. The expansion and internationalization timeline of Colgate-Palmolive As we can see from Figure 1., Colgate internationalized slowly at the beginning, but picked up a faster pace in the following years. Penetrating geographically close regions or markets that have similar culture and then expanding within that region identifies the company’s pattern for internationalization. First, they entered into Canada. Canada is the closet country to the USA, which is very similar culture wise. In addition, after the Canadian market, Colgate went to Europe and Australia. Europe presented a challenge since each country there had a completely different cultural preference. Thus, Colgate went on with the strategy of â€Å"think global, act local†. This gave the company an added advantage, thus enabling Colgate to understand the market needs, and therefore develop suitable products, different logistics/distribution chains, and different production systems than what originally they founded in their home country. Moreover, Colgate was acquiring different companies that presented a competitive advantage, or had products that Colgate thought were innovative and had a selling potential in different global markets. In addition to mergers and acquisitions, Colgate went for joint ventures, especially in the countries to Far East; these countries are China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and India. Therefore, Colgate-Palmolive has slowly progressed in its internationalization process, starting from neighboring countries, moving to farther geographical locations that had similar cultural preferences, and expanded accordingly. 2.2 The assessment of geographical characteristics of internationalisation Colgate-Palmolive’s geographic segmentation is formed mainly on the basis of each region’s economic, cultural and climatic conditions. Approximately 75% of Colgate-Palmolive’s sales derive from international operations; therefore succeeding in markets outside of the United States is of great importance. The first country outside the US borders, where CP decided to launch their operations and sales was the closest, both geographically and culturally, Canada. The next step in their internationalization process was to reach more distant countries, yet still of cultural and economic similarity – Australia and Western European countries, such as France, Germany and the United Kingdom (Colgate.com, 2013). After acquiring a strong market position in these markets Colgate recognized that the competition between the three main business actors in the field, which are Unilever, Procter & Gamble, and Colgate (Hauser Furstace, Inc., 1994), is becoming extremely fierce, that is why CP decided to shift the focus of their competitive advantage and target the, internally so called, ‘high growth markets’ (CP Annual Report, 1996). High growth markets, according to CP’s understanding, are the developing countries that possess a potentially high customer base. Colgate-Palmolive decided to enter Latin America (Mexico, as the geographically closest high growth market), expanding then to Asia (India in 1937, after the country’s independence from the colonization by the UK in 1930s, and Philippines – currently the 5th biggest Colgate market in Asia), Africa and Central and Eastern Europe (Poland, Baltic States). Colgate was one of the pioneers in recognizing that following the multi-domestic or international strategy of internationalization is not enough to maintain  their competitive advantage and that the company has to allow a certain degree of adaptation in order to comply with each country’s customer needs. Colgate-Palmolive is extremely dedicated to their worldwide brand, and does broad research in order to introduce the most accurate products into the right countries. For instance, in the 90s Polish CP product developers came up with the idea of the Colgate Herbal toothpaste and the Palmolive Naturals series after finding out that Polish customers prefer more natural cosmetics – after a successful introduction to the Polish market, CP decided to expand these lines of products further internationally (Broniewicz, 1997). Currently CP sells sixteen different kinds of toothpaste in the US, while in the UK they are selling twenty-two distinctive varieties (Colgate.com, 2012 ). 2.3 The outline of the main foreign market entry modes employed by the company As mentioned in previous paragraphs, after developing the business into a successful one in the US, Colgate decided it is time to become a MNC and conquer the market internationally. The first international cooperation was made in 1914 (Economictimes.indiatimes.com, 2013), over a hundred years after the company was first established, with a neighbor country, Canada. The choice was a safe one given the fact both countries are very similar culturally, politically, and are known to have the largest trade relationship in the world, hence there wasn’t much risk in this move (Kafchinski, 2013). Next, after the company’s first successful installation in a foreign (although similar) country, they got hungry for the success and wanted to continue the expansion. However this time, given the present strong competition in the industry in North America, CP decided to target other, mostly less developed countries in Europe, Asia, Latin America and Africa in order to take advantage of the â€Å"new entrant’s† position (New York Times, 2013). The 20’s were the years of considerable expansion into other continents. The first country was France, oldest ally of the US to its role in the American Revolutionary War, plus presenting an attractive and economically similar market. Perhaps the Canadian experience with Quebec, which is a French speaking/cultural province, enticed Colgate to move to France, where the firm’s second subsidiary was opened in 1920. Further that year, now having  the courage to enter further (for the moment westernized) markets, CP expanded to Australia, the United Kingdom, Germany, and Mexico (Answers.com, 2013). We can observe that Colgate opted in expanding in culturally or economically similar countries in the first place (which reflects the Uppsala Model) to then have the strength and courage to enter further countries lik e Mexico. After the successful moves, they finished the year by expanding to more distant (physically/economically/culturally) countries: the Philippines, Argentina, Brazil, South Africa, and waited till 1937 to move to India. It is clear to see that location, culture and economy, were essential criteria in deciding which countries CP would enter. In addition, Politics have also played its role as one of the main determinants of entry choices. For instance, Poland and other eastern European countries have been entered in the late 80’s, due to political reason that strongly affected the market’s availability in previous years. In 1995, CP entered Russia and other central European/fast growing markets (Colgate.com, 2013). Taking the example of Poland, Jerzy Starak, an energetic entrepreneur played a key role in developing the business in that new part of the world. He agreed to set a Joint Venture with CP (Starak initially owned 49% of shares, whereas CP owned 51%) as he thought th e business had a huge potential. Colgate-Palmolive chose to set a JV in Poland as it didn’t have much knowledge and social ties in the eastern European market, rather than going for a WOS, which would have been risky due to the lack of familiarity with the market, lack of information about the cultural and business practices, and very different turbulent, still communistic political and economic system. This strategic move allowed CP to gradually attain the necessary skillset to further penetrate the CEE countries – when CP decided to enter the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), the company was able to establish a wholly owned subsidiary in Riga, Latvia and then export CP products to Estonia and Lithuania through local distributors – all this could be possible due to the learning process of operating in the eastern European region (Ludzie.wprost.pl, 2013). 2.4 The overview of the enterprise structures and controls used by the company Colgate-Palmolive has a hierarchical organizational structure. In the top of this organizational structure is the chief executive officer, Mr.  Ian Cook, who has a bird eye view of the organization in all parts of the world. Five continental senior executives follow the CEO. These executive officers are in charge of different continental block Market, which are European, North American, African, Asian, and South American. Below the continental managers are the country managers who are in charge of respective countries in which Colgate-Palmolive has a presence. The company’s organization structure has also the human resource managers and the information technology executives. The justification that Colgate-Palmolive has a hierarchical organization structure is that all decisions are made by the strategic managers at the top of the organizational structure. The graphical analysis of CP’s organizational structure is presented below. Figure 2. Colgate-Palmolive’s Organizational Structure Colgate-Palmolive has a divisional organizational design. The international divisions of Colgate-Palmolive face diverse legal and cultural constraints in different continents of the world. Grouping international divisions develops specialized skills and abilities for dealing with international questions that do not arise in domestic operations. This divisional organizational design helps Colgate-Palmolive respond and adapt to differences in product types, product marketing and cultural differences of its various international locations. Divisional organizational design emphasizes people’s decision-making autonomy throughout the organization. An individual at various levels can become more involved in organization’s basic activities. Organization by following this structure puts more demands on individuals to deliver the highest level of business performance. On the other hand, the divisional organizational design has its shortcomings – it very often leads to repetition of services like local marketing and international marketing, local finance and international finance. This puts more financial pressure on the organization as it leads to greater operational costs and higher complexity of the entire system within the company. Based on the internal materials from CP’s employee workshop on the company’s strategy it can be stated that Colgate-Palmolive has harnessed a control analogy in five main areas, which can be further divided into two parts namely Strategic Thrust and their Management Process. The depiction of CP’s control structure is presented in Figure 3. below. Figure 3. Control Structure of Colgate-Palmolive 3. Evaluation of academic strategy frameworks for Colgate-Palmolive 3.1. Overview of the Bartlett and Ghoshal’s generic strategies framework In order to facilitate the understanding of the internationalization strategy of Colgate, it is essential to get oneself familiar with the Bartlett and Ghoshal’s generic strategies framework. According to the theory, in order to survive firms must do all that they can to respond to cost pressures affected by global integration and to the diverse customers needs which affect the demand for a greater degree of the local responsiveness. Bartlett and Ghoshal emphasize that the core competencies and skills of a company do not necessarily have to reside within the company’s home country; instead, multinational enterprises should develop their strategies from any of the worldwide operations (Hill, 2011). The two scholars developed four distinct strategies of entering a foreign market, which are: multidomestic, international, global, and transnational. Multidomestic strategy focuses on high level of local responsiveness and low level of global integration, whereas the global st rategy has an opposite approach of focusing on maintaining high level of global integration without taking into account the local responsiveness aspect. The international strategy does not require a great need for neither global integration nor local responsiveness. International strategy can bee seen mainly in the paper, textiles and machinery industries (Hill, 2011). Figure 4. Bartlett and Ghoshal’s generic strategies framework (Hill, 2011) Part of Bartlett and Ghoshal’s theory on multinational enterprises strategies, which we would like to focus on is the transnational strategy model. This model is an organized approach to internationalize into global markets while the firm works very hard to be responsive to local demand  while holding necessary central control over the global operations to ensure efficiency and learning within subsidiaries (Hill, 2011). 3.2 Evaluation of the Bartlett and Ghoshal’s framework on the company’s example After a thorough analysis of the internationalization process of CP, it has been found that the company followed in overall three out of four generic strategies, namely international, multidomestic, and transnational. At first, CP operated within the international strategy. CP entered markets which were of geographic or cultural proximity (Canada, France, Australia, etc.) in order to reduce the cost pressures, benefit from adapting and leveraging parent company competencies and have greater control over the foreign subsidies. The level of local responsiveness was relatively low, since the foreign customer base had similar taste and preferences, as well as the economic, legal and political structure of the host countries did not differ significantly from the ones in United States. As the competition in the industry was growing, CP realized that in order to maintain their strong position on the market they had to tap the market of high growth countries instead of focusing only on the developed ones, thus the shift of strategy towards greater localization and adaptation of offerings became inevitable. At that point CP focused on developing a more multidomestic approach to sense and exploit the local opportunities by building flexibility through resourceful and adjustable national operations. At the same time, Colgate-Palmolive never resigned from their international approach and headed slowly towards being a truly transnational business entity. After Colgate’s initial development in foreign markets through the international and multidomestic strategy, they eventually followed the transnational strategy where the company tried to achieve low costs through location economies, economies of scale, and learning effects, thus differentiating their products within different geographic markets and supporting the flow of information and skills between subsidiaries within the firm’s global network (Hill, 2011). CP recognized that entering the high growth markets is more challenging and simply replicating the company’s  products will not suffice, but a huge MNC like Colgate-Palmolive could not allow a complete shift from international to multidomestic strategy, that is why in order to develop global efficiency Colgate-Palmolive had to adapt the transnational model. We can observe that strategy in the degree of flexibility given to country managers and the fact that the company is always encouraging employees to share their ideas. A good example of that are the Colgate Herbal toothpaste and the Palmolive Naturals series introduced by Polish specialists on the Polish market and then introduced further worldwide. Figure 5. Bartlett and Ghoshal’s strategy framework of Colgate-Palmolive To conclude this part, in Bartlett and Ghoshal’s model the transition of expansion theory is basically from multidomestic to transnational OR international to transnational or global. In Colgate-Palmolive’s case the situation presents itself differently. The transition of CP’s internationalization strategy started from the shift from international strategy to the multidomestic one and then transformed naturally to the transnational strategy. Even though the company did not follow exactly the same scheme as presented in the Bartlett and Ghoshal’s framework, we can still assume the validity of the theory and present Colgate-Palmolive as one of the best examples of how to pursue the idea of ‘thinking globally, acting locally’ through the implementation of the transnational strategy. 4. Conclusion Colgate-Palmolive can’t be seen as a simple business, but more as a symbol of a successful MNC, where generations have struggled throughout history with changes in the market, politics, and different economies, in order to adopt the most suited strategy that permitted the company to get where it is now. We saw that Colgate didn’t just apply one model and succeeded straight away, but started by developing a solid base for the company in the US, and then slowly expanded internationally to similar countries where they could replicate their initial western products, to then expand further into other countries and continents by adopting a more locally aware strategy. After the second expansion phase, the company couldn’t just replicate it’s  products internationally as the cultures, and political systems of the other nations were too different; CP had to sense and exploit local opportunities. The production and management demanded more local awareness, hence the shift towards a multinational strategy. After over almost 200 years of developing the business and taking over the market internationally, CP seems to have found the â€Å"golden strategy†; Transnational. The national units contribute to the world wide integrated operations, and knowledge is developed by all actors, and shared amongst them. Global efficiency has been slowly but safely reached by Colgate thanks to its flexibility and reflex in capturing the market’s demands and opportunities, while staying cautious about cultural and political risks throughout history. 5. List of Figures Figure 1. The expansion and internationalization timeline of Colgate-Palmolive (page 4) Figure 2. Colgate-Palmolive’s Organizational Structure (page 7) Figure 3. Control Structure of Colgate-Palmolive (page 8) Figure 4. Bartlett and Ghoshal’s generic strategies framework (Hill, 2011) (page 9) Figure 5. Bartlett and Ghoshal’s strategy framework of Colgate-Palmolive (page 10) 6. Bibliography 1.Answers.com. 2013. Colgate-Palmolive. [online] Available at: http://www.answers.com/topic/colgate-palmolive-company#ixzz2l6GNWWiX [Accessed: 19 Nov 2013]. 2.Broniewicz, M. 1997. Nowe Szampony Palmolive Naturals. 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